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Sunday, 16 October 2011
Low Calorie Desserts
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Saturday, 15 October 2011
A Mood Boosting, Ailment - Busting guide to munching your way to Good Health
Food is really medicine in disguise. It's what nature always intended us to shove in our mouths when calamities happen.
Although serious condition should always be handled by a physician, for minor problems, food is a natural remedy that's often less expensive and has fewer side effects
To know exactly what to cook for what crisis, Indiadiets.com has compiled a list of the most common reasons you'd find yourself dialling the doctor, and matched the food to your particular misery. Yes,
popping a supplement may be more convenient, but it isn't as effective. With foods, you get the combined effects of dozens of nutrients rather than just one or two. Pick your symptom and start eating.
BUILD MUSCLE
Eat a meal containing the perfect ratio of nutrients for building muscle - six parts carbohydrate to one part protein. In a University of Texas study, subjects who downed a carbohydrates and protein drink, a few hours after resistance training experienced 50% more muscle growth than those given only protein. The extra insulin released by eating carbohydrates intensifies the ability of the essential amino acids to promote optional muscle growth.
COMMON COLD
At least one laboratory study suggests that chicken soup may fight colds by reducing inflammation, while peppermint tea, which contains methnol, may clear congestion. The jury's still out on vitamin C, but it can't hurt to consume foods high in C, such as orange juice, mosambi, hot lemon tea.
FATIGUE
Eat more iron rich foods such as fortified cereals, spinach, beans, chicken and red meat. (Lack of iron can make you tired and unfocused). Boost your intake of fruits and vegetables, too; their vitamin C will help your body use the iron in plant foods. Fatigue may also signal that you're mildly dehydrated, so drinking a few glasses of water during mid-afternoon slumps could help.
PMS
Is your calcium intake shamefully low? This could be the cause of your PMS symptoms. In one study, women who supplemented their diet with 1200 mg. of calcium a day (roughly the equivalent of 4 glasses of milk or fortified orange juice) for three menstrual cycles reported relief from crankiness, water retention, food cravings, and pain.
URINARY TRACT INFECTION
If you have got it bad, your best bet is antibiotics. But to prevent a UTI from striking again try black and blue berries (eg. jambools, karvandha). Studies at Rutgers University in Chatsworth, NJ, have shown that these berries can protect against UTI's by preventing bacteria from sticking to urinary tract tissues. A handful a day should do it.
PAIN RELIEF
Tart red cherries may offer relief. About 20 cherries have anti-inflammatory capability comparable to that of Aspirin or Ibuprofen, according to research from Michigan Stat University. If the fresh kind is not available near you, then try the canned variety.
CONSTIPATION
Boosting your intake of insoluble fibre (bran cereal, whole grain bread) is the key to keeping your system humming. Flax seed (linseed), praised for it's potential to protect against disease, beans and banana are also loaded with fibre. Drink plenty of water - at least 8 glasses every day - and try eating a few slices of pineapple after meals; it contains bromelain, an enzyme that promotes regularity.
ENLARGED PROSTATE
Make a habit of guavas, or melon. It doesn't matter. Increased intake of fructose, the sugar found in fruit, may combat benign prostatic hyperplasia (an enlarged prostate - BPH, for short). Here's the theory: Fructose helps reduce phosphate levels in your body, and too much phosphate may raise your levels of 1,25-(OH)2D,a chemical that's been linked to both BPH and prostate cancer.
Any fibre is good fibre, but soluble fibre - the kind found in oats and beans - is the best for your prostate. A recent study published in the Journal of Urology noted that men who ate more soluble fibre had lower prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels. Soluble fibre may help lower PSA by clearing out harmful steroids that are involved in both BPH and prostate cancer.
MUSCLE INJURY
Peanuts contain medicine for your muscle: vitamin E. According to researches the extra Vitamin E present in peanuts may speed immune cells to the site of an injuty and help fight the inflammation that interferes with muscle healing. Grapes can also help out with flavonoids that increase the flow of blood to your sore spot.
DEPRESSION
Research has shown that, over the long haul, omega 3 fatty acids ( found in fish oils) may stave off depression. Carbo - rich snacks, e.g., a banana, could also be a good bet for combatting crankiness in a pinch. Eating carbohydrates boosts your levels of tryptophan and serotonin - to feel - good brain chemicals (for the same reason this diet is also good for the stressed out).
Another important nutrient you need to fight depression is Vitamin B6, found in meat, liver, whole grains and veggies like potatoes. Serious B6 deficiencies can result in dementia and paranoia. But even border - line levels can make a case of the blues worse. You could also increase the intake of Dahi - which is high in Riboflavin, another mood-boosting B.
Beans are rich in folate, a hard disease fighting vitamin that may also help mend broken hearts. A Harvard study that examined blood levels of Vitamins in 213 depressed subjects found that low folate levels translated into higher levels of depression and a poorer response to medication.
HEART ATTACK
A daily dose of berries. Black or blue, they're sky high in Vitamin C. A guava or a few amlas will also do. Research shows that high blood levels of C may help improve the functioning of your blood vessels in a way that would help prevent a heart attack.
COLD SORES
A glass of red wine. According to a study published in Antiviral Research, resveratrol, a compound found in grapes, stopped the herpes simplex-1 virus from multiplying. Researchers aren't sure if this works in humans, but red wine isn't exactly castor oil, so give it a try.
YEAST INFECTION
Eating a cup of yoghurt or dahi daily may help prevent infections. The lactobacillus acidophilus - cultures present in dahi can help replenish the helpful bacteria that are necessary for controlling yeast levels.
KIDNEY STONES
Beer. Or a few porters. Both are high in hops, a beer ingredient that's believed to keep stone - forming calcium from accumulating in your kidneys. Finnish researchers studied approximately 27000 men and estimated that each glass of beer drank in a day lowered their kidney stone risk by 40%. Just don't binge; what's good for your kidney's isn't necessarily good for your liver.
If your doctor tells you to cut back on coffee because it contains compounds that may bind with calcium to form stones, he isn't up on his research. A study review published in the American Journal of Kidney disease found that those who drank coffee had a lower risk of kidney stones.
But since caffeine is a diuretic, and dehydration is known to increase your risk of stones, drink plenty of water.
BROKEN BONES
Mix up some oil and vinegar for your salad dressing, using soyabean or mustard oil, both of which are rich in Omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids create a friendly environment for bone cells to do the job of building a new bone. Other sources that are high in omega-3s include fatty fish like tuna, sardines, and mackeral and walnuts.
TOOTH TROUBLES
Vitamin K. It helps your blood clot, which in turn will help close that hole left in your gums after a root canal. Leafy green vegetables are high in K, but since your chompers are on strike, drink vegetable juice instead.
Soya can also help dampen your post surgical pain. Researchers found that when soy protein was fed to rats who later underwent surgery, their pain responses were suppressed.
INSOMNIA
Compulsively shell peanuts or pistachios. It's the fat, not the monotony of shelling the nuts, that may help you doze off. Researchers in England found that when subjects were given a little fat, they fell asleep faster than when they were given salt or sugar. While peanuts and pistachios may not be any better than ice cream at knocking you out, the mono-saturated fat in them will improve your cholesterol levels.
LUNG CANCER
Grapefruit (paphanas). In a study published in tha Journal of the national Cancer Institute, subjects who frequently ate the tart fruit cut their lung cancer risk in half. Grapefruit, especially the white kind, contains naringin, a phytochemical that may help lower levels of a cancer causing enzyme.
But if you are simply trying to quit smoking, go for more protein. There's a chemical reason why kicking the butt makes you feel like kicking the dog. Levels of cortisol, a mood lifting brain chemical, spike when you smoke but drop during withdrawal. In one study, people who ate a high protein lunch had a higher cortisol levels - and improvements in mood - then when they ate nothing
Although serious condition should always be handled by a physician, for minor problems, food is a natural remedy that's often less expensive and has fewer side effects
To know exactly what to cook for what crisis, Indiadiets.com has compiled a list of the most common reasons you'd find yourself dialling the doctor, and matched the food to your particular misery. Yes,
popping a supplement may be more convenient, but it isn't as effective. With foods, you get the combined effects of dozens of nutrients rather than just one or two. Pick your symptom and start eating.
BUILD MUSCLE
Eat a meal containing the perfect ratio of nutrients for building muscle - six parts carbohydrate to one part protein. In a University of Texas study, subjects who downed a carbohydrates and protein drink, a few hours after resistance training experienced 50% more muscle growth than those given only protein. The extra insulin released by eating carbohydrates intensifies the ability of the essential amino acids to promote optional muscle growth.
COMMON COLD
At least one laboratory study suggests that chicken soup may fight colds by reducing inflammation, while peppermint tea, which contains methnol, may clear congestion. The jury's still out on vitamin C, but it can't hurt to consume foods high in C, such as orange juice, mosambi, hot lemon tea.
FATIGUE
Eat more iron rich foods such as fortified cereals, spinach, beans, chicken and red meat. (Lack of iron can make you tired and unfocused). Boost your intake of fruits and vegetables, too; their vitamin C will help your body use the iron in plant foods. Fatigue may also signal that you're mildly dehydrated, so drinking a few glasses of water during mid-afternoon slumps could help.
PMS
Is your calcium intake shamefully low? This could be the cause of your PMS symptoms. In one study, women who supplemented their diet with 1200 mg. of calcium a day (roughly the equivalent of 4 glasses of milk or fortified orange juice) for three menstrual cycles reported relief from crankiness, water retention, food cravings, and pain.
URINARY TRACT INFECTION
If you have got it bad, your best bet is antibiotics. But to prevent a UTI from striking again try black and blue berries (eg. jambools, karvandha). Studies at Rutgers University in Chatsworth, NJ, have shown that these berries can protect against UTI's by preventing bacteria from sticking to urinary tract tissues. A handful a day should do it.
PAIN RELIEF
Tart red cherries may offer relief. About 20 cherries have anti-inflammatory capability comparable to that of Aspirin or Ibuprofen, according to research from Michigan Stat University. If the fresh kind is not available near you, then try the canned variety.
CONSTIPATION
Boosting your intake of insoluble fibre (bran cereal, whole grain bread) is the key to keeping your system humming. Flax seed (linseed), praised for it's potential to protect against disease, beans and banana are also loaded with fibre. Drink plenty of water - at least 8 glasses every day - and try eating a few slices of pineapple after meals; it contains bromelain, an enzyme that promotes regularity.
ENLARGED PROSTATE
Make a habit of guavas, or melon. It doesn't matter. Increased intake of fructose, the sugar found in fruit, may combat benign prostatic hyperplasia (an enlarged prostate - BPH, for short). Here's the theory: Fructose helps reduce phosphate levels in your body, and too much phosphate may raise your levels of 1,25-(OH)2D,a chemical that's been linked to both BPH and prostate cancer.
Any fibre is good fibre, but soluble fibre - the kind found in oats and beans - is the best for your prostate. A recent study published in the Journal of Urology noted that men who ate more soluble fibre had lower prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels. Soluble fibre may help lower PSA by clearing out harmful steroids that are involved in both BPH and prostate cancer.
MUSCLE INJURY
Peanuts contain medicine for your muscle: vitamin E. According to researches the extra Vitamin E present in peanuts may speed immune cells to the site of an injuty and help fight the inflammation that interferes with muscle healing. Grapes can also help out with flavonoids that increase the flow of blood to your sore spot.
DEPRESSION
Research has shown that, over the long haul, omega 3 fatty acids ( found in fish oils) may stave off depression. Carbo - rich snacks, e.g., a banana, could also be a good bet for combatting crankiness in a pinch. Eating carbohydrates boosts your levels of tryptophan and serotonin - to feel - good brain chemicals (for the same reason this diet is also good for the stressed out).
Another important nutrient you need to fight depression is Vitamin B6, found in meat, liver, whole grains and veggies like potatoes. Serious B6 deficiencies can result in dementia and paranoia. But even border - line levels can make a case of the blues worse. You could also increase the intake of Dahi - which is high in Riboflavin, another mood-boosting B.
Beans are rich in folate, a hard disease fighting vitamin that may also help mend broken hearts. A Harvard study that examined blood levels of Vitamins in 213 depressed subjects found that low folate levels translated into higher levels of depression and a poorer response to medication.
HEART ATTACK
A daily dose of berries. Black or blue, they're sky high in Vitamin C. A guava or a few amlas will also do. Research shows that high blood levels of C may help improve the functioning of your blood vessels in a way that would help prevent a heart attack.
COLD SORES
A glass of red wine. According to a study published in Antiviral Research, resveratrol, a compound found in grapes, stopped the herpes simplex-1 virus from multiplying. Researchers aren't sure if this works in humans, but red wine isn't exactly castor oil, so give it a try.
YEAST INFECTION
Eating a cup of yoghurt or dahi daily may help prevent infections. The lactobacillus acidophilus - cultures present in dahi can help replenish the helpful bacteria that are necessary for controlling yeast levels.
KIDNEY STONES
Beer. Or a few porters. Both are high in hops, a beer ingredient that's believed to keep stone - forming calcium from accumulating in your kidneys. Finnish researchers studied approximately 27000 men and estimated that each glass of beer drank in a day lowered their kidney stone risk by 40%. Just don't binge; what's good for your kidney's isn't necessarily good for your liver.
If your doctor tells you to cut back on coffee because it contains compounds that may bind with calcium to form stones, he isn't up on his research. A study review published in the American Journal of Kidney disease found that those who drank coffee had a lower risk of kidney stones.
But since caffeine is a diuretic, and dehydration is known to increase your risk of stones, drink plenty of water.
BROKEN BONES
Mix up some oil and vinegar for your salad dressing, using soyabean or mustard oil, both of which are rich in Omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids create a friendly environment for bone cells to do the job of building a new bone. Other sources that are high in omega-3s include fatty fish like tuna, sardines, and mackeral and walnuts.
TOOTH TROUBLES
Vitamin K. It helps your blood clot, which in turn will help close that hole left in your gums after a root canal. Leafy green vegetables are high in K, but since your chompers are on strike, drink vegetable juice instead.
Soya can also help dampen your post surgical pain. Researchers found that when soy protein was fed to rats who later underwent surgery, their pain responses were suppressed.
INSOMNIA
Compulsively shell peanuts or pistachios. It's the fat, not the monotony of shelling the nuts, that may help you doze off. Researchers in England found that when subjects were given a little fat, they fell asleep faster than when they were given salt or sugar. While peanuts and pistachios may not be any better than ice cream at knocking you out, the mono-saturated fat in them will improve your cholesterol levels.
LUNG CANCER
Grapefruit (paphanas). In a study published in tha Journal of the national Cancer Institute, subjects who frequently ate the tart fruit cut their lung cancer risk in half. Grapefruit, especially the white kind, contains naringin, a phytochemical that may help lower levels of a cancer causing enzyme.
But if you are simply trying to quit smoking, go for more protein. There's a chemical reason why kicking the butt makes you feel like kicking the dog. Levels of cortisol, a mood lifting brain chemical, spike when you smoke but drop during withdrawal. In one study, people who ate a high protein lunch had a higher cortisol levels - and improvements in mood - then when they ate nothing
Childbirth
Childbirth is the process whereby an infant is born. It is considered by many to be the beginning of the infant's life, and age is defined relative to this event in most cultures.A woman is considered to be in labour when she begins experiencing regular uterine contractions, accompanied by changes of her cervix — primarily effacement and dilation. While childbirth is widely experienced as painful, some women do report painless labours, while others find that concentrating on the birth helps to quicken labour and lessen the sensations. Most births are successful vaginalbirths, but sometimes complications arise and a woman may undergo a cesarean section.
During the time immediately after birth, both the mother and the baby are hormonally cued to bond, the mother through the release of oxytocin, a hormone also released during breastfeeding.
CESAREAN SECTION
A Caesarean section, (also C-section, Caesarian section, Cesarean section, Caesar, etc.) is a surgical procedure in which one or more incisions are made through a mother's abdomen (laparotomy) and uterus (hysterotomy) to deliver one or more babies, or, rarely, to remove a dead fetus. A late-term abortion using Caesarean section procedures is termed a hysterotomy abortion and is very rarely performed. The first modern Caesarean section was performed by German gynecologist Ferdinand Adolf Kehrer in 1881.
A Caesarean section is usually performed when a vaginal delivery would put the baby's or mother's life or health at risk, although in recent times it has been also performed upon request for childbirths that could otherwise have been natural.
BREAST-FEEDING
Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with breast milk directly from female human breasts (i.e., via lactation) rather than from a baby bottle or other container. Babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk. It is recommended that mothers breastfeed for six months or more, without the addition of infant formula or solid food. After the addition of solid food, mothers are advised to continue breast-feeding up to a year, and can continue until two years.
Human breast milk is the healthiest form of milk for babies. There are few exceptions, such as when the mother is taking certain drugs or is infected with human T-lymphotropic virus, HIV, or has active untreated tuberculosis. Breastfeeding promotes health and helps to prevent disease. Artificial feeding is associated with more deaths from diarrhea in infants in both developing and developed countries. Experts agree that breastfeeding is beneficial, but have conflicting views about how long breastfeeding remains beneficial. They also express concerns about the risks of using artificial formulas.
The World Health Organization (WHO) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) emphasize the value of breastfeeding for mothers as well as children. Both recommend exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life and then supplemented breastfeeding for at least one year and up to two years or more. While recognizing the superiority of breastfeeding, regulating authorities also work to minimize the risks of artificial feeding.
Breast milk is made from nutrients in the mother's bloodstream and bodily stores. Breast milk has just the right amount of fat, sugar, water, and protein that is needed for a baby's growth and development. Because breastfeeding uses an average of 500 calories a day it helps the mother lose weight after giving birth. The composition of breast milk changes depending on how long the baby nurses at each session, as well as on the age of the child. The quality of a mother's breast milk may be compromised by smoking, alcoholic beverages or caffeinated drinks.
Breast-feeding has several benefits for the child. It provides immunity and thereby decreases the morbidity and mortality rates. Children those who are breastfed are likely to have higher intelligence, less childhood obesity, lesser tendency to develop allergic diseases, less overweight and other long term health benefits.
Mothers too benefit from breastfeeding as the process increases bonding between mother & child. Mother can shed off her extra kilos as the fat accumulated can be used for milk formation. It helps in reducing the chances of developing breast cancer. The hormones responsible for lactation process also helps the uterus and vagina to return to normalcy. Breastfeeding serves as a natural postpartum infertility measure thereby reducing the chances of consequent pregnancy.
Nutritional Care in Pregnancy
A balanced, nutritious diet is an important aspect of a healthy pregnancy. Eating a healthy diet, balancing carbohydrates, fat, and proteins, and eating a variety of fruits and vegetables, usually ensures good nutrition. Those whose diets are affected by health issues, religious requirements, or ethical beliefs may choose to consult a health professional for specific advice.
Adequate periconceptional folic acid (also called folate or Vitamin B9) intake has been proven to limit fetal neural tube defects, preventing spina bifida, a very serious birth defect. The neural tube develops during the first 28 days of pregnancy, explaining the necessity to guarantee adequate periconceptional folate intake. Folates (from folia, leaf) are abundant in spinach (fresh, frozen, or canned), and are found in green leafy vegetables e.g. salads, beets, broccoli, asparagus, citrus fruits and melons, chickpeas (i.e. in the form of hummus or falafel), and eggs. In the United States and Canada, most wheat products (flour, noodles) are fortified with folic acid.
DHA omega-3 is a major structural fatty acid in the brain and retina, and is naturally found in breast milk. It is important for the woman to consume adequate amounts of DHA during pregnancy and while nursing to support her well-being and the health of her infant. Developing infants cannot produce DHA efficiently, and must receive this vital nutrient from the woman through the placenta during pregnancy and in breast milk after birth.
Several micronutrients are important for the health of the developing fetus, especially in areas of the world where insufficient nutrition is prevalent. In developed areas, such as Western Europe and the United States, certain nutrients such as Vitamin D and calcium, required for bone development, may require supplementation. A 2011 study examined cord blood of healthy neonates and found that low levels of vitamin D are associated with increased risk of lower respiratory tract infection the first year of life.
Dangerous bacteria or parasites may contaminate foods, particularly Listeria and toxoplasma, toxoplasmosis agent. Careful washing of fruits and raw vegetables may remove these pathogens, as may thoroughly cooking leftovers, meat, or processed meat. Soft cheeses may contain Listeria; if milk is raw, the risk may increase. Pregnant women are also more prone to Salmonella infections from eggs and poultry, which should be thoroughly cooked. Practicing good hygiene in the kitchen can reduce these risks.
WEIGHT GAIN
Caloric intake must be increased to ensure proper development of the fetus. The amount of weight gained during a single pregnancy varies among women. The Institute of Medicine recommends an overall pregnancy weight gain for women starting pregnancy at a normal weight, with a body mass index of 18.5-24.9, of 25-35 pounds (11.4-15.9 kg). Women who are underweight, with a BMI of less than 18.5, may need to gain between 28-40 lbs. Overweight women are advised to gain between 15-25 lbs, whereas an obese woman may expect to gain between 11-20 lbs. Doctors and dietitians may make different, or more individualized, recommendations for specific patients, based on factors including low maternal age, nutritional status, fetal development, and morbid obesity.
During pregnancy, insufficient or excessive weight gain can compromise the health of the mother and fetus. All women are encouraged to choose a healthy diet regardless of pre-pregnancy weight. Exercise during pregnancy, such as walking and swimming, is recommended for healthy pregnancies. Exercise has notable health benefits for both mother and baby, including preventing excessive weight gain.
EXPOSURE TO TOXINS
Various toxins pose a significant hazard to fetuses during development:
NUTRITION AND PREGNANCY refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertaken before, during and after pregnancy.
In a precursory study into the link between nutrition and pregnancy in 1950 women who consumed minimal amounts over the eight week period had a higher mortality or disorder rate concerning their offspring than women who ate regularly, because children born to well-fed mothers had less restriction within the womb.
Not only have physical disorders been linked with poor nutrition before and during pregnancy, but neurological disorders and handicaps are a risk that is run by mothers, who are malnourished, a condition which can also lead to the child becoming more susceptible to later degenerative disease(s).
Beneficial pre-pregnancy nutrients
As with most diets, there are chances of over-supplementing, however, as general advice, both state and medical recommendations are that mothers follow instructions listed on particular vitamin packaging as to the correct or recommended daily allowance (RDA).
Adequate periconceptional folic acid (also called folate or Vitamin B9) intake has been proven to limit fetal neural tube defects, preventing spina bifida, a very serious birth defect. The neural tube develops during the first 28 days of pregnancy, explaining the necessity to guarantee adequate periconceptional folate intake. Folates (from folia, leaf) are abundant in spinach (fresh, frozen, or canned), and are found in green leafy vegetables e.g. salads, beets, broccoli, asparagus, citrus fruits and melons, chickpeas (i.e. in the form of hummus or falafel), and eggs. In the United States and Canada, most wheat products (flour, noodles) are fortified with folic acid.
DHA omega-3 is a major structural fatty acid in the brain and retina, and is naturally found in breast milk. It is important for the woman to consume adequate amounts of DHA during pregnancy and while nursing to support her well-being and the health of her infant. Developing infants cannot produce DHA efficiently, and must receive this vital nutrient from the woman through the placenta during pregnancy and in breast milk after birth.
Several micronutrients are important for the health of the developing fetus, especially in areas of the world where insufficient nutrition is prevalent. In developed areas, such as Western Europe and the United States, certain nutrients such as Vitamin D and calcium, required for bone development, may require supplementation. A 2011 study examined cord blood of healthy neonates and found that low levels of vitamin D are associated with increased risk of lower respiratory tract infection the first year of life.
Dangerous bacteria or parasites may contaminate foods, particularly Listeria and toxoplasma, toxoplasmosis agent. Careful washing of fruits and raw vegetables may remove these pathogens, as may thoroughly cooking leftovers, meat, or processed meat. Soft cheeses may contain Listeria; if milk is raw, the risk may increase. Pregnant women are also more prone to Salmonella infections from eggs and poultry, which should be thoroughly cooked. Practicing good hygiene in the kitchen can reduce these risks.
WEIGHT GAIN
Caloric intake must be increased to ensure proper development of the fetus. The amount of weight gained during a single pregnancy varies among women. The Institute of Medicine recommends an overall pregnancy weight gain for women starting pregnancy at a normal weight, with a body mass index of 18.5-24.9, of 25-35 pounds (11.4-15.9 kg). Women who are underweight, with a BMI of less than 18.5, may need to gain between 28-40 lbs. Overweight women are advised to gain between 15-25 lbs, whereas an obese woman may expect to gain between 11-20 lbs. Doctors and dietitians may make different, or more individualized, recommendations for specific patients, based on factors including low maternal age, nutritional status, fetal development, and morbid obesity.
During pregnancy, insufficient or excessive weight gain can compromise the health of the mother and fetus. All women are encouraged to choose a healthy diet regardless of pre-pregnancy weight. Exercise during pregnancy, such as walking and swimming, is recommended for healthy pregnancies. Exercise has notable health benefits for both mother and baby, including preventing excessive weight gain.
EXPOSURE TO TOXINS
Various toxins pose a significant hazard to fetuses during development:
 | Alcohol ingestion during pregnancy may cause fetal alcohol syndrome, a permanent and often devastating birth-defect syndrome. A number of studies have shown that light to moderate drinking during pregnancy might not pose a risk to the fetus, although no amount of alcohol during pregnancy can be guaranteed to be absolutely safe. |
| Numerous studies show that children exposed to prenatal cigarette smoke may experience a wide range of behavioral, neurological, and physical difficulties. |
| Elemental mercury and methylmercury are two forms of mercury that may pose risks in pregnancy. Methylmercury, a worldwide contaminant of seafood and freshwater fish, is known to produce adverse nervous system effects, especially during brain development. Eating fish is the main source of mercury exposure in humans and some fish may contain enough mercury to harm an unborn baby's developing nervous system, sometimes leading to learning disabilities. Mercury is present in many types of fish, but it is mostly found in certain large fish. The United States Food and Drug Administration and the Environmental Protection Agency advise pregnant women not to eat swordfish, shark, king mackerel and tilefish and limit consumption of albacore tuna to 6 ounces or less a week. |
| The Center for Children's Environmental Health reports studies that demonstrate that exposure to air pollution during pregnancy is related to adverse birth outcomes including low birth weight, premature delivery, and heart malformations. Cord blood of exposed babies shows DNA damage that has been linked to cancer. Follow-up studies show a higher level of developmental delays at age three, lower scores on IQ tests and increased behavioral problems at ages six and eight. |
| According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control, the developing nervous system of the fetus is particularly vulnerable to lead toxicity. Neurological toxicity is observed in children of exposed women as a result of the ability of lead to cross the placental barrier and to cause neurological impairment in the fetus. A special concern for pregnant women is that some of the bone lead accumulation is released into the blood during pregnancy. Several studies have provided evidence that even low maternal exposures to lead produce intellectual and behavioral deficits in children. |
| A 2006 study found that children who were exposed prenatally to the insecticide chlorpyrifos had significantly poorer mental and motor development by three years of age and increased risk for behavior problems. A 2007 study using a mouse model suggested that exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons prior to conceiving and when lactating reduces the number of eggs in the ovaries of female offspring by two-thirds. A 2009 study of pregnant women exposed to tetrachloroethylene in drinking water found an increased risk of oral clefts and neural tube defects in their children. A 2009 study found that prenatal exposure to phthalates, the chemical compounds used as plasticizers in a wide variety of personal care products, children's toys, and medical devices, may be an environmental risk factor for low birth weight in infants." A 2010 study found that prenatal exposure to flame retardant compounds called polybrominated diphenyl ethers is associated with adverse neurodevelopmental effects in young children. |
NUTRITION AND PREGNANCY refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertaken before, during and after pregnancy.
In a precursory study into the link between nutrition and pregnancy in 1950 women who consumed minimal amounts over the eight week period had a higher mortality or disorder rate concerning their offspring than women who ate regularly, because children born to well-fed mothers had less restriction within the womb.
Not only have physical disorders been linked with poor nutrition before and during pregnancy, but neurological disorders and handicaps are a risk that is run by mothers, who are malnourished, a condition which can also lead to the child becoming more susceptible to later degenerative disease(s).
Beneficial pre-pregnancy nutrients
As with most diets, there are chances of over-supplementing, however, as general advice, both state and medical recommendations are that mothers follow instructions listed on particular vitamin packaging as to the correct or recommended daily allowance (RDA).
| Magnesium and zinc supplementation for the binding of hormones at their receptor sites. |
| Folic acid supplementation, or dietary requirement of foods containing it for the regular growth of the follicle. |
| Regular Vitamin D supplementation decreases the chances of deficiencies in adolescence. More importantly, it is known to reduce the likelihood of rickets with pelvic malformations which make normal delivery impossible. |
| Regular Vitamin B12 supplementation, again is known to reduce the chances of infertility and ill health. |
| Omega-3 fatty acids can increase blood flow to reproductive organs and may help regulate reproductive hormones. Consumption is also known to help prevent premature delivery and low birth weight. The best dietary source of omega-3 fatty acids is oily fish. Some other omega-3 fatty acids not found in fish can be found in foods such as flaxseeds, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, and enriched eggs. |
Duration of Pregnancy
Pregnancy is considered "at term" when gestation attains 37 complete weeks but is less than 42 (between 259 and 294 days since LMP). Events before completion of 37 weeks (259 days) are considered preterm; from week 42 (294 days) events are considered postterm. When a pregnancy exceeds 42 weeks (294 days), the risk of complications for both the woman and the fetus increases significantly, as such, obstetricians usually prefer to induce labour, in an uncomplicated pregnancy, at some stage between 41 and 42 weeks.
Accurate dating of pregnancy is important, because it is used in calculating the results of various prenatal tests (for example, in the triple test). A decision may be made to induce labour if a fetus is perceived to be
overdue. Furthermore, if LMP and ultrasound dating predict different respective due dates, with the latter being later, this might signify slowed fetal growth and therefore require closer review.
The menstrual cycle is the scientific term for the physiological changes that can occur in fertile female humans. Overt menstruation (where there is blood flow from the uterus through the vagina) occurs in humans.
The menstrual cycle, under the control of the endocrine system, is necessary for reproduction. It is commonly divided into three phases: the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase; although some sources use a different set of phases: menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase. Menstrual cycles are counted from the first day of menstrual bleeding. Hormonal contraception interferes with the normal hormonal changes with the aim of preventing reproduction.
Stimulated by gradually increasing amounts of estrogen in the follicular phase, discharges of blood (menses) slow then stop, and the lining of the uterus thickens. Follicles in the ovary begin developing under the influence of a complex interplay of hormones, and after several days one or occasionally two become dominant (non-dominant follicles atrophy and die). Approximately mid-cycle, 24–36 hours after the Luteinizing Hormone (LH) surges, the dominant follicle releases an ovum, or egg in an event called ovulation. After ovulation, the egg only lives for 24 hours or less without fertilization while the remains of the dominant follicle in the ovary become a corpus luteum; this body has a primary function of producing large amounts of progesterone. Under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium (uterine lining) changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy. If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks, the corpus luteum will involute, causing sharp drops in levels of both progesterone and estrogen. These hormone drops cause the uterus to shed its lining and egg in a process termed menstruation.
In the menstrual cycle, changes occur in the female reproductive system as well as other systems (which lead to breast tenderness or mood changes, for example). A woman's first menstruation is termed menarche, and occurs typically around age 12. The end of a woman's reproductive phase is called the menopause, which commonly occurs somewhere between the ages of 45 and 55.
Primipara = a woman who has delivered one baby.
Multipara = a woman who has delivered two or more babies.
Primip / Primigravida: A woman pregnant for the first time.
The egg cell is released by one of the ovaries and than sucked into a fallopian tube. The lining on the inside of the fallopian tube is also a highly specialized mucus membrane. The cells on the surface of this mucus membrane contain specialized hair like protrusions which is constantly moving in such a way that there is a constant movement of fluid from the ovary towards the opening of tubes and from there toward the cavity in the womb. This movement causes a suction effect. Anything in the vicinity of the ovaries ( like the egg cell) will be sucked into the womb.
An interesting fact is that fertilization does not occur in the womb , but at the opening of the tube near the ovary. The sperms swim all the way from the vagina, through the womb and upstream through the fallopian tubes.
After fertilization the fertilized egg cell is slowly sucked through the fallopian tubes into the cavity of the womb. It only arrives in the womb about five days after conception. The egg than attaches itself to the endometrium ( the lining on the inside of the womb.).
NAEGELE’S RULE
Naegele's Rule is a standard way of calculating the due date for a pregnancy. The rule estimates the expected date of delivery (EDD) by adding one year, subtracting three months, and adding seven days to the first day of a woman's last menstrual period (LMP). The result is approximately 280 days (40 weeks) from the LMP. Naegele's Rule is named after Franz Karl Naegele (1778–1851).
Example:
LMP = 8 May 2009
+1 year = 8 May 2010
-3 months = 8 February 2010
+7 days = 15 February 2010
In humans preterm birth refers to the birth of a baby of less than 37 weeks gestational age. The cause for preterm birth is in many situations elusive and unknown; many factors appear to be associated with the development of preterm birth, making the reduction of preterm birth a challenging proposition.
Premature birth, commonly used as a synonym for preterm birth, refers to the birth of a baby before the developing organs are mature enough to allow normal postnatal survival. Premature infants are at greater risk for short and long term complications, including disabilities and impediments in growth and mental development. Significant progress has been made in the care of premature infants, but not in reducing the prevalence of preterm birth. Preterm birth is the major cause of neonatal mortality in developed countries.
Symptoms of imminent spontaneous preterm birth are signs of premature labor; one sign is four or more uterine contractions in one hour. In contrast to false labor, true labor is accompanied by cervical dilatation and effacement. Also, vaginal bleeding in the third trimester, heavy pressure in the pelvis, or abdominal or back pain could be indicators that a preterm birth is about to occur. A watery discharge from the vagina may indicate premature rupture of the membranes that surround the baby. While the rupture of the membranes may not be followed by labor, usually delivery is indicated as infection (chorioamnionitis) is a serious threat to both fetus and mother. In some cases the cervix dilates prematurely without pain or perceived contractions, so that the mother may not have warning signs until very late in the birthing process.
The shorter the term of pregnancy, the greater the risks of mortality and morbidity for the baby primarily due to the related prematurity. Preterm-premature babies ("preemies" or "premmies") have an increased risk of death in the first year of life (infant mortality), with most of that occurring in the first month of life (neonatal mortality). As risk of brain damage and developmental delay is significant at that threshold even if the infant survives.
Preterm infants usually show physical signs of prematurity in reverse proportion to the gestational age. As a result they are at risk for numerous medical problems affecting different organ systems.
As the cause of labor still remains elusive, the exact cause of preterm birth is also unsolved. In fact, the cause of 50% of preterm births is never determined. Labor is a complex process involving many factors. Four different pathways have been identified that can result in preterm birth and have considerable evidence: precocious fetal endocrine activation, uterine over-distension, decidual bleeding, and intrauterine inflammation/infection.
RISK FACTORS INCLUDE:
Historically efforts have been primarily aimed to improve survival and health of preterm infants (tertiary intervention). Such efforts, however, have not reduced the incidence of preterm birth. Increasingly primary interventions that are directed at all women, and secondary intervention that reduce existing risks are looked upon as measures that need to be developed and implemented to prevent the health problems of premature infants and children.
Postmaturity is when a baby has not yet been born after 42 weeks of gestation, two weeks beyond the normal 40. Post-term, postmaturity, prolonged pregnancy, and post-dates pregnancy all refer to postmature birth. Post-mature births do not have any harmful effects on the mother, but the fetus, however, can begin to suffer from malnutrition. After the 42nd week of gestation, the placenta, which supplies the baby with nutrients and oxygen from the mother, starts aging and will eventually fail. If the fetus passes fecal matter, which is not typical until after birth, and the child breathes it in, then the baby could become sick with pneumonia. Postterm pregnancy may be a reason to induce labor.
The causes of post-term births is unknown. But post-mature births are more likely when the mother has experienced a previous post-mature birth. Post-mature births can also be attributed to irregular menstrual cycles. When the menstrual period is irregular it is very difficult to judge how and when the ovaries would be available for fertilization and subsequently result in pregnancy. Some post-mature pregnancies are because the mother is not certain of her last period, so in reality the baby is not technically post-mature.
Different babies will show different symptoms of postmaturity. The most commons symptoms are dry skin, overgrown nails, creases on the baby's palms and soles of their feet, minimal fat, a lot of hair on their head, and either a brown, green, or yellow discoloration of their skin. Doctors diagnose post-mature birth based on the baby's physical appearance and the length of the mother's pregnancy. Some postmature babies will show no or little sign of postmaturity.
Once a pregnancy has surpassed the 40 week gestation period, doctors closely monitor the mother for signs of placental deterioration. Towards the end of pregnancy calcium is deposited on the walls of blood vessels and proteins are deposited on the surface of the placenta, which changes the placenta. This limits the blood flow through the placenta and ultimately leads to placental insufficiency and the baby is no longer properly nourished. Induced labor is strongly encouraged if this happens.
Post-term babies may be larger than an average baby, thus increasing the length of labor. The labor is increased because the baby's head is too big to pass through the mother's pelvis. This is called cephalopelvic disproportion. Caesarean sections are encouraged if this happens.
Gestation is the carrying of an embryo or fetus inside a female viviparous animal. Mammals during pregnancy can have one or more gestations at the same time (multiple gestations). The time interval of a gestation plus two weeks is called gestation period, and the length of time plus two weeks that the offspring have spent developing in the uterus is called gestational age.
Human pregnancy can be divided into three trimesters, each three months long. The first trimester is from the last period to the 13th week, the second trimester is from the 14th to 27th week, and the third trimester is from the 28th week through the 40th week.
In humans, birth normally occurs at a gestational age of about 40 weeks (nine months and one week), though a normal range is from 37 to 42 weeks.
Accurate dating of pregnancy is important, because it is used in calculating the results of various prenatal tests (for example, in the triple test). A decision may be made to induce labour if a fetus is perceived to be
overdue. Furthermore, if LMP and ultrasound dating predict different respective due dates, with the latter being later, this might signify slowed fetal growth and therefore require closer review.
| Menstrual Period |
The menstrual cycle is the scientific term for the physiological changes that can occur in fertile female humans. Overt menstruation (where there is blood flow from the uterus through the vagina) occurs in humans.
The menstrual cycle, under the control of the endocrine system, is necessary for reproduction. It is commonly divided into three phases: the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase; although some sources use a different set of phases: menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase. Menstrual cycles are counted from the first day of menstrual bleeding. Hormonal contraception interferes with the normal hormonal changes with the aim of preventing reproduction.
Stimulated by gradually increasing amounts of estrogen in the follicular phase, discharges of blood (menses) slow then stop, and the lining of the uterus thickens. Follicles in the ovary begin developing under the influence of a complex interplay of hormones, and after several days one or occasionally two become dominant (non-dominant follicles atrophy and die). Approximately mid-cycle, 24–36 hours after the Luteinizing Hormone (LH) surges, the dominant follicle releases an ovum, or egg in an event called ovulation. After ovulation, the egg only lives for 24 hours or less without fertilization while the remains of the dominant follicle in the ovary become a corpus luteum; this body has a primary function of producing large amounts of progesterone. Under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium (uterine lining) changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy. If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks, the corpus luteum will involute, causing sharp drops in levels of both progesterone and estrogen. These hormone drops cause the uterus to shed its lining and egg in a process termed menstruation.
In the menstrual cycle, changes occur in the female reproductive system as well as other systems (which lead to breast tenderness or mood changes, for example). A woman's first menstruation is termed menarche, and occurs typically around age 12. The end of a woman's reproductive phase is called the menopause, which commonly occurs somewhere between the ages of 45 and 55.
| PRIMIP AND MULTIP |
Primipara = a woman who has delivered one baby.
Multipara = a woman who has delivered two or more babies.
Primip / Primigravida: A woman pregnant for the first time.
| IMPLANTATION |
The egg cell is released by one of the ovaries and than sucked into a fallopian tube. The lining on the inside of the fallopian tube is also a highly specialized mucus membrane. The cells on the surface of this mucus membrane contain specialized hair like protrusions which is constantly moving in such a way that there is a constant movement of fluid from the ovary towards the opening of tubes and from there toward the cavity in the womb. This movement causes a suction effect. Anything in the vicinity of the ovaries ( like the egg cell) will be sucked into the womb.
An interesting fact is that fertilization does not occur in the womb , but at the opening of the tube near the ovary. The sperms swim all the way from the vagina, through the womb and upstream through the fallopian tubes.
After fertilization the fertilized egg cell is slowly sucked through the fallopian tubes into the cavity of the womb. It only arrives in the womb about five days after conception. The egg than attaches itself to the endometrium ( the lining on the inside of the womb.).
NAEGELE’S RULE
Naegele's Rule is a standard way of calculating the due date for a pregnancy. The rule estimates the expected date of delivery (EDD) by adding one year, subtracting three months, and adding seven days to the first day of a woman's last menstrual period (LMP). The result is approximately 280 days (40 weeks) from the LMP. Naegele's Rule is named after Franz Karl Naegele (1778–1851).
Example:
LMP = 8 May 2009
+1 year = 8 May 2010
-3 months = 8 February 2010
+7 days = 15 February 2010
| PRETERM |
In humans preterm birth refers to the birth of a baby of less than 37 weeks gestational age. The cause for preterm birth is in many situations elusive and unknown; many factors appear to be associated with the development of preterm birth, making the reduction of preterm birth a challenging proposition.
Premature birth, commonly used as a synonym for preterm birth, refers to the birth of a baby before the developing organs are mature enough to allow normal postnatal survival. Premature infants are at greater risk for short and long term complications, including disabilities and impediments in growth and mental development. Significant progress has been made in the care of premature infants, but not in reducing the prevalence of preterm birth. Preterm birth is the major cause of neonatal mortality in developed countries.
Symptoms of imminent spontaneous preterm birth are signs of premature labor; one sign is four or more uterine contractions in one hour. In contrast to false labor, true labor is accompanied by cervical dilatation and effacement. Also, vaginal bleeding in the third trimester, heavy pressure in the pelvis, or abdominal or back pain could be indicators that a preterm birth is about to occur. A watery discharge from the vagina may indicate premature rupture of the membranes that surround the baby. While the rupture of the membranes may not be followed by labor, usually delivery is indicated as infection (chorioamnionitis) is a serious threat to both fetus and mother. In some cases the cervix dilates prematurely without pain or perceived contractions, so that the mother may not have warning signs until very late in the birthing process.
The shorter the term of pregnancy, the greater the risks of mortality and morbidity for the baby primarily due to the related prematurity. Preterm-premature babies ("preemies" or "premmies") have an increased risk of death in the first year of life (infant mortality), with most of that occurring in the first month of life (neonatal mortality). As risk of brain damage and developmental delay is significant at that threshold even if the infant survives.
Preterm infants usually show physical signs of prematurity in reverse proportion to the gestational age. As a result they are at risk for numerous medical problems affecting different organ systems.
| Neurological problems include apnea of prematurity, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), developmental disability, cerebral palsy and intraventricular hemorrhage, the latter affecting 25 percent of babies born preterm, usually before 32 weeks of pregnancy. Mild brain bleeds usually leave no or few lasting complications, but severe bleeds often result in brain damage or even death. Neurodevelopmental problems have been linked to lack of maternal thyroid hormones, at a time when their own thyroid is unable to meet postnatal needs. |
| Cardiovascular complications may arise from the failure of the ductus arteriosus to close after birth: patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). |
| Respiratory problems are common, specifically the respiratory distress syndrome (RDS or IRDS) (previously called hyaline membrane disease). Another problem can be chronic lung disease (previously called bronchopulmonary dysplasia or BPD). |
| Gastrointestinal and metabolic issues can arise from hypoglycemia, feeding difficulties, rickets of prematurity, hypocalcemia, inguinal hernia, and necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). |
| Hematologic complications include anemia of prematurity, thrombocytopenia, and hyperbilirubinemia (jaundice) that can lead to kernicterus. |
| Infection, including sepsis, pneumonia, and urinary tract infection. |
RISK FACTORS INCLUDE:
| Age at the upper and lower end of the reproductive years, be it more than 35 or less than 18 years of age. |
| Maternal height and weight can also play a role. |
| Pregnancy interval makes a difference as women with a 6 months span or less between pregnancies have a two-fold increase in preterm birth. |
| Studies on type of work and physical activity have given conflicting results, but it is opined that stressful conditions, hard labor, and long hours are probably linked to preterm birth. |
| Women who have undergone previous surgically induced abortions have been shown to have a higher risk of preterm birth (less than 37 weeks), as well as extreme preterm birth (less than 28 weeks). |
| Adequate maternal nutrition is important. Women with a low BMI are at increased risk for preterm birth. Further, women with poor nutritional status may also be deficient in vitamins and minerals. Adequate nutrition is critical for fetal development and a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may help reduce the risk of a preterm delivery. Obesity does not directly lead to preterm birth; however, it is associated with diabetes and hypertension which are risk factors by themselves. |
| Women with a previous preterm birth are at higher risk for a recurrence at a rate of 15–50% |
| To some degree those individuals may have underlying conditions (i.e. uterine malformation, hypertension, diabetes) that persist. |
| Genetic make-up is a factor in the causality of preterm birth. |
| Multiple pregnancies (twins, triplets, etc.) are a significant factor in preterm birth. |
| Maternal medical conditions increase the risk of preterm birth, and often labor has to be induced for medical reasons; such conditions include high blood pressure, pre-eclampsia, maternal diabetes, asthma, thyroid disease, and heart disease. |
| | Women with vaginal bleeding during pregnancy are at higher risk for preterm birth. |
| Women with abnormal amounts of amniotic fluid, too much (polyhydramnios) or too little (oligohydramnios) are also at risk. |
| Babies with birth defects are at higher risk of being born preterm. |
| Finally, the use of tobacco, cocaine, and excessive alcohol during pregnancy also increases the chance of preterm delivery. |
| POSTTERM |
Postmaturity is when a baby has not yet been born after 42 weeks of gestation, two weeks beyond the normal 40. Post-term, postmaturity, prolonged pregnancy, and post-dates pregnancy all refer to postmature birth. Post-mature births do not have any harmful effects on the mother, but the fetus, however, can begin to suffer from malnutrition. After the 42nd week of gestation, the placenta, which supplies the baby with nutrients and oxygen from the mother, starts aging and will eventually fail. If the fetus passes fecal matter, which is not typical until after birth, and the child breathes it in, then the baby could become sick with pneumonia. Postterm pregnancy may be a reason to induce labor.
The causes of post-term births is unknown. But post-mature births are more likely when the mother has experienced a previous post-mature birth. Post-mature births can also be attributed to irregular menstrual cycles. When the menstrual period is irregular it is very difficult to judge how and when the ovaries would be available for fertilization and subsequently result in pregnancy. Some post-mature pregnancies are because the mother is not certain of her last period, so in reality the baby is not technically post-mature.
Different babies will show different symptoms of postmaturity. The most commons symptoms are dry skin, overgrown nails, creases on the baby's palms and soles of their feet, minimal fat, a lot of hair on their head, and either a brown, green, or yellow discoloration of their skin. Doctors diagnose post-mature birth based on the baby's physical appearance and the length of the mother's pregnancy. Some postmature babies will show no or little sign of postmaturity.
Once a pregnancy has surpassed the 40 week gestation period, doctors closely monitor the mother for signs of placental deterioration. Towards the end of pregnancy calcium is deposited on the walls of blood vessels and proteins are deposited on the surface of the placenta, which changes the placenta. This limits the blood flow through the placenta and ultimately leads to placental insufficiency and the baby is no longer properly nourished. Induced labor is strongly encouraged if this happens.
Post-term babies may be larger than an average baby, thus increasing the length of labor. The labor is increased because the baby's head is too big to pass through the mother's pelvis. This is called cephalopelvic disproportion. Caesarean sections are encouraged if this happens.
| GESTATION |
Gestation is the carrying of an embryo or fetus inside a female viviparous animal. Mammals during pregnancy can have one or more gestations at the same time (multiple gestations). The time interval of a gestation plus two weeks is called gestation period, and the length of time plus two weeks that the offspring have spent developing in the uterus is called gestational age.
Human pregnancy can be divided into three trimesters, each three months long. The first trimester is from the last period to the 13th week, the second trimester is from the 14th to 27th week, and the third trimester is from the 28th week through the 40th week.
In humans, birth normally occurs at a gestational age of about 40 weeks (nine months and one week), though a normal range is from 37 to 42 weeks.
Diagnosis of Pregnancy
Most pregnant women experience a number of symptoms, which can signify pregnancy. The symptoms can include nausea and vomiting, excessive tiredness and fatigue, cravings for certain foods that are not normally sought out, and frequent urination particularly during the night.
A number of early medical signs are associated with pregnancy. These signs typically appear, if at all, within the first few weeks after conception. Although not all of these signs are universally present, nor are all of them diagnostic by themselves, taken together they make a presumptive diagnosis of pregnancy. These signs include the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood and urine, missed menstrual period,
implantation bleeding that occurs at implantation of the embryo in the uterus during the third or fourth week after last menstrual period, increased basal body temperature sustained for over 2 weeks after ovulation, Chadwick's sign (darkening of the cervix, vagina, and vulva), Goodell's sign (softening of the vaginal portion of the cervix), Hegar's sign (softening of the uterus isthmus), and pigmentation of linea alba – Linea nigra, (darkening of the skin in a midline of the abdomen, caused by hyperpigmentation resulting from hormonal changes, usually appearing around the middle of pregnancy). Breast tenderness is common during the first trimester, and is more common in women who are pregnant at a young age.
Pregnancy detection can be accomplished using one or more various pregnancy tests, which detect hormones generated by the newly formed placenta. Clinical blood and urine tests can detect pregnancy 12 days after implantation. Blood pregnancy tests are more accurate than urine tests. Home pregnancy tests are urine tests, and normally cannot detect a pregnancy until at least 12 to 15 days after fertilization. A quantitative blood test can determine approximately the date the embryo was conceived.
In the post-implantation phase, the blastocyst secretes a hormone named human chorionic gonadotropin, which in turn stimulates the corpus luteum in the woman's ovary to continue producing progesterone. This acts to maintain the lining of the uterus so that the embryo will continue to be nourished. The glands in the lining of the uterus will swell in response to the blastocyst, and capillaries will be stimulated to grow in that region. This allows the blastocyst to receive vital nutrients from the woman.
Despite all the signs, some women may not realize they are pregnant until they are quite far along in their pregnancy. In some cases, a few women have not been aware of their pregnancy until they begin labour. This can be caused by many factors, including irregular periods (quite common in teenagers), certain medications (not related to conceiving children), and obese women who disregard their weight gain. Others may be in denial of their situation.
An early obstetric ultrasonography can determine the age of the pregnancy fairly accurately. In practice, doctors typically express the age of a pregnancy (i.e., an "age" for an embryo) in terms of "menstrual date" based on the first day of a woman's last menstrual period, as the woman reports it. Unless a woman's recent sexual activity has been limited, she has been charting her cycles, or the conception is the result of some types of fertility treatment (such as IUI or IVF), the exact date of fertilization is unknown. Without symptoms such as morning sickness, often the only visible sign of a pregnancy is an interruption of the woman's normal monthly menstruation cycle, (i.e., a "late period"). Hence, the "menstrual date" is simply a common educated estimate for the age of a fetus, which is an average of 2 weeks later than the first day of the woman's last menstrual period. The term "conception date" may sometimes be used when that date is more certain, though even medical professionals can be imprecise with their use of the two distinct terms. The due date can be calculated by using Naegele's rule. The expected date of delivery may also be calculated from sonogram measurement of the fetus. This method is slightly more accurate than methods based on LMP. Additional obstetric diagnostic techniques can estimate the health and presence or absence of congenital diseases at an early stage.
A pregnancy test attempts to determine whether or not a woman is pregnant. Modern pregnancy tests look for chemical markers associated with pregnancy. These markers are found in urine and blood, and pregnancy tests require sampling one of these substances. The first of these markers to be discovered, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), was discovered in 1930 to be produced by the trophoblast cells of the fertilised ovum (blastocyst). While hCG is a reliable marker of pregnancy, it cannot be detected until after implantation: this results in false negatives if the test is performed during the very early stages of pregnancy. Obstetric ultrasonography may also be used to detect pregnancy. Obstetric ultrasonography was first practiced in the 1960s; the first home test kit for hCG was released in the mid-1970s.
The test for pregnancy which can give the quickest result after fertilisation is a rosette inhibition assay for early pregnancy factor (EPF). EPF can be detected in blood within 48 hours of fertilization. However, testing for EPF is expensive and time-consuming.
Most chemical tests for pregnancy look for the presence of the beta subunit of hCG or human chorionic gonadotropin in the blood or urine. hCG can be detected in urine or blood after implantation, which occurs six to twelve days after fertilization. Quantitative blood (serum beta) tests can detect hCG levels as low as 1 mIU/mL, while urine tests have published detection thresholds of 20 mIU/mL to 100 mIU/mL, depending on the brand. Qualitative blood tests generally have a threshold of 25 mIU/mL, and so are less sensitive than some available home pregnancy tests. Most home pregnancy tests are based on lateral-flow technology.
With obstetric ultrasonography the gestational sac sometimes can be visualized as early as four and a half weeks of gestation (approximately two and a half weeks after ovulation) and the yolk sac at about five weeks' gestation. The embryo can be observed and measured by about five and a half weeks. The heartbeat may be seen as early as six weeks, and is usually visible by seven weeks' gestation.
Pregnancy tests may be used to determine the viability of a pregnancy. Serial quantitative blood tests may be done, usually 2–3 days apart. Below an hCG level of 1,200 mIU/ml the hCG usually doubles every 48–72 hours, though a rise of 50–60% is still considered normal. Between 1,200 and 6,000 mIU/ml serum the hCG usually takes 72–96 hours to double, and above 6,000 mIU/ml, the hCG often takes more than four days to double. Failure to increase normally may indicate an increased risk of miscarriage or a possible ectopic pregnancy.
Ultrasound is also a common tool for determining viability. A lower than expected heart rate or missed development milestones may indicate a problem with the pregnancy.[9] Diagnosis should not be made from a single ultrasound, however. Inaccurate estimations of fetal age and inaccuracies inherent in ultrasonic examination may cause a scan to be interpreted negatively. If results from the first ultrasound scan indicate a problem, repeating the scan 7–10 days later is reasonable practice.
A number of early medical signs are associated with pregnancy. These signs typically appear, if at all, within the first few weeks after conception. Although not all of these signs are universally present, nor are all of them diagnostic by themselves, taken together they make a presumptive diagnosis of pregnancy. These signs include the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood and urine, missed menstrual period,
implantation bleeding that occurs at implantation of the embryo in the uterus during the third or fourth week after last menstrual period, increased basal body temperature sustained for over 2 weeks after ovulation, Chadwick's sign (darkening of the cervix, vagina, and vulva), Goodell's sign (softening of the vaginal portion of the cervix), Hegar's sign (softening of the uterus isthmus), and pigmentation of linea alba – Linea nigra, (darkening of the skin in a midline of the abdomen, caused by hyperpigmentation resulting from hormonal changes, usually appearing around the middle of pregnancy). Breast tenderness is common during the first trimester, and is more common in women who are pregnant at a young age.
Pregnancy detection can be accomplished using one or more various pregnancy tests, which detect hormones generated by the newly formed placenta. Clinical blood and urine tests can detect pregnancy 12 days after implantation. Blood pregnancy tests are more accurate than urine tests. Home pregnancy tests are urine tests, and normally cannot detect a pregnancy until at least 12 to 15 days after fertilization. A quantitative blood test can determine approximately the date the embryo was conceived.
In the post-implantation phase, the blastocyst secretes a hormone named human chorionic gonadotropin, which in turn stimulates the corpus luteum in the woman's ovary to continue producing progesterone. This acts to maintain the lining of the uterus so that the embryo will continue to be nourished. The glands in the lining of the uterus will swell in response to the blastocyst, and capillaries will be stimulated to grow in that region. This allows the blastocyst to receive vital nutrients from the woman.
Despite all the signs, some women may not realize they are pregnant until they are quite far along in their pregnancy. In some cases, a few women have not been aware of their pregnancy until they begin labour. This can be caused by many factors, including irregular periods (quite common in teenagers), certain medications (not related to conceiving children), and obese women who disregard their weight gain. Others may be in denial of their situation.
An early obstetric ultrasonography can determine the age of the pregnancy fairly accurately. In practice, doctors typically express the age of a pregnancy (i.e., an "age" for an embryo) in terms of "menstrual date" based on the first day of a woman's last menstrual period, as the woman reports it. Unless a woman's recent sexual activity has been limited, she has been charting her cycles, or the conception is the result of some types of fertility treatment (such as IUI or IVF), the exact date of fertilization is unknown. Without symptoms such as morning sickness, often the only visible sign of a pregnancy is an interruption of the woman's normal monthly menstruation cycle, (i.e., a "late period"). Hence, the "menstrual date" is simply a common educated estimate for the age of a fetus, which is an average of 2 weeks later than the first day of the woman's last menstrual period. The term "conception date" may sometimes be used when that date is more certain, though even medical professionals can be imprecise with their use of the two distinct terms. The due date can be calculated by using Naegele's rule. The expected date of delivery may also be calculated from sonogram measurement of the fetus. This method is slightly more accurate than methods based on LMP. Additional obstetric diagnostic techniques can estimate the health and presence or absence of congenital diseases at an early stage.
| Pregnancy test |
A pregnancy test attempts to determine whether or not a woman is pregnant. Modern pregnancy tests look for chemical markers associated with pregnancy. These markers are found in urine and blood, and pregnancy tests require sampling one of these substances. The first of these markers to be discovered, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), was discovered in 1930 to be produced by the trophoblast cells of the fertilised ovum (blastocyst). While hCG is a reliable marker of pregnancy, it cannot be detected until after implantation: this results in false negatives if the test is performed during the very early stages of pregnancy. Obstetric ultrasonography may also be used to detect pregnancy. Obstetric ultrasonography was first practiced in the 1960s; the first home test kit for hCG was released in the mid-1970s.
| Modern tests |
The test for pregnancy which can give the quickest result after fertilisation is a rosette inhibition assay for early pregnancy factor (EPF). EPF can be detected in blood within 48 hours of fertilization. However, testing for EPF is expensive and time-consuming.
Most chemical tests for pregnancy look for the presence of the beta subunit of hCG or human chorionic gonadotropin in the blood or urine. hCG can be detected in urine or blood after implantation, which occurs six to twelve days after fertilization. Quantitative blood (serum beta) tests can detect hCG levels as low as 1 mIU/mL, while urine tests have published detection thresholds of 20 mIU/mL to 100 mIU/mL, depending on the brand. Qualitative blood tests generally have a threshold of 25 mIU/mL, and so are less sensitive than some available home pregnancy tests. Most home pregnancy tests are based on lateral-flow technology.
With obstetric ultrasonography the gestational sac sometimes can be visualized as early as four and a half weeks of gestation (approximately two and a half weeks after ovulation) and the yolk sac at about five weeks' gestation. The embryo can be observed and measured by about five and a half weeks. The heartbeat may be seen as early as six weeks, and is usually visible by seven weeks' gestation.
| Test for Viability |
Pregnancy tests may be used to determine the viability of a pregnancy. Serial quantitative blood tests may be done, usually 2–3 days apart. Below an hCG level of 1,200 mIU/ml the hCG usually doubles every 48–72 hours, though a rise of 50–60% is still considered normal. Between 1,200 and 6,000 mIU/ml serum the hCG usually takes 72–96 hours to double, and above 6,000 mIU/ml, the hCG often takes more than four days to double. Failure to increase normally may indicate an increased risk of miscarriage or a possible ectopic pregnancy.
Ultrasound is also a common tool for determining viability. A lower than expected heart rate or missed development milestones may indicate a problem with the pregnancy.[9] Diagnosis should not be made from a single ultrasound, however. Inaccurate estimations of fetal age and inaccuracies inherent in ultrasonic examination may cause a scan to be interpreted negatively. If results from the first ultrasound scan indicate a problem, repeating the scan 7–10 days later is reasonable practice.
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